== Always sign exactly what you are authenticating I can't claim to know very much about cryptography programming, but I like to think that I have picked up on a few mistakes to avoid. Here's one of them: ~~you want to sign exactly what you are authenticating, not some mangled version of it~~. (Note that 'canonicalizing' things is a form of mangling them.) Suppose, as a [[not entirely hypothetical example http://vnhacker.blogspot.com/2009/09/flickrs-api-signature-forgery.html]], that you are signing some sort of web request with a bunch of (URL) parameters. In order to deal with annoying software, you define a canonical form for these URL parameters, which is to sort them into alphabetical order and concatenate them all together; you sign this mangled, canonical result. Great, except that that this canonical form has just allowed an attacker to turn '_login=fred&next=10_' into '_login=fredne&xt=10_' (and worse is possible if you do not sort the parameters into order but use them in the request's order). [[As Colin Percival puts it http://www.daemonology.net/blog/2008-12-18-AWS-signature-version-1-is-insecure.html]], good crypto signatures are designed so it is very difficult to produce collisions and when you mangle what you sign, part of what you do is that you create opportunities for attackers to produce deliberate collisions. This rarely ends well. Another part of what you do when you mangle is that you are no longer necessarily verifying what you think you are verifying. Instead of verifying what you are actually about to act on and use, you are verifying something else, some mangled transformation of it. This is almost invariably a mistake, one that attackers will be happy to take advantage of to slip dangerous things into the gap between what you verify and what you act on. (It is possible that your mangling will be un-exploitable. But the historical odds are against you; over and over, people who have done this sort of mangling and imprecise verification have turned out to have created exploitable vulnerabilities. And if you are writing crypto code, you should not be betting on things going your way.) === Sidebar: how I think you have to do canonicalization Disclaimer: you should not necessarily trust what I write about how to do crypto (as opposed to how *not* to do crypto), because I am not an experienced crypto person. I believe that the corollary to this is that if you absolutely have to do mangling and canonicalization, you must do it as part of generating the plaintext; you take raw input, transform it into the canonical form, sign the canonical form, and output the canonical form and the signature. On verification, you canonicalize, verify the canonicalization, and then use *the canonicalization* for further processing, not the raw input. If you cannot use your canonical form as input to the rest of your processing or as your public plaintext, you need a new canonical form. Try again.